ࡱ> vxstu[  bjbj77 nU\U\& \\\\\$PDP"%AsPuPuPuPuPuPuP$RU\P\)()()(P\\P444)(&\\sP4)(sP44aHI& |O-H_PP0PIU0NU(IIU\KQ!4#|?%QQQPPk4QQQP)()()()(UQQQQQQQQQ > ":  Ƶ University Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary A LEADERSHIP THEORY APPROACH FOR MINISTRY A Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Course LEAD638 Issues in Leadership Theory by Ricardo Norton November 28, 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter INTRODUCTION ... 4 THE MEANING OF LEADERSHIP AND THEORY ... 6 Components of Leadership 6 My Definition of Leadership ... 7 The Meaning of Theory ... 8 Leadership Theories ... 9 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP .. 14 Pioneers Behind the Theories . 14 Transformational Theory .. 15 Transformational Leadership Theory ... 16 Characteristics of Transformational Leaders . 17 Characteristics from Burns ...... 18 Characteristics from Bass . 18 Characteristics from Other Authors .. 19 Mapping the Theory ....... 19 Transformational Theory and Culture .... 21 Organizational Culture .. 21 Organizational Culture and Transformational Theory . 22 Personal Reflection 22 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP 23 Nature and Pioneers of the Theory .... 23 The Meaning and Nature of Charisma . 24 Pioneers and Analysts of the Theory 24 Mapping the Theory .. 26 The Dark Side of Charisma 27 Charisma and Pretension 27 Charisma and Power . 28 Positive and Negative Charisma 28 Personal Reflection . 29 SERVANT LEADERSHIP .. 31 Pioneers Behind the Theory 31 Meaning and Attributes of Servant Leadership .. 32 Servant Leadership and Christianity .. 34 The Meaning of Servant Leadership 35 Mapping the Servant Leadership Concept . 37 Personal Reflection .... 38 MY APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP AND CONCLUSION ..... 40 Transformational, Charisma, and Servant Leadership 40 My Definition and Approach to Leadership 42 REFERENCE LIST .. 44 INTRODUCTION This paper analyzes, synthesizes, and evaluates key concepts and theories related to leadership theory and practice. The monograph uses insights learned during the course LEAD638 Issues in Leadership Theory and adds additional views on leadership theory obtained during the investigation for this assignment. The overall purpose of the paper is to integrate the leadership theory concepts learned during the course into an approach to leadership that is contextualized to my profession. Some of my responsibilities as a professional involve leading the Institute of Hispanic Ministry at the Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary, and teaching leadership courses for graduate and postgraduate students. The paper begins discussing the definition of leadership and the meaning of theory. Both terms have been historically defined in ways that in time and context appear to be anachronistic. Next, the paper provides a brief account of the development of the main leadership theories as they have unraveled during the past few decades. Finally, the paper focuses on three main theories that can be applied to my leadership context. Transformational, charismatic, and servant leadership are leadership concepts closely associated with leadership for religious institutions. The discussion of these three theories includes a study of the nature and pioneers of the theories and a personal reflection/critique on the concepts. My reflection on each of these theories is presented at the end of each chapter and attempts to incorporate the theoretical underpinning of the theories into my field of work. The paper ends with a synthesis of how my approach to leadership would be based on the analysis of these three theories. CHAPTER 1 THE MEANING OF LEADERSHIP AND THEORY Defining leadership has been a daunting task. The literature on the subject projects as many definitions as people who have attempted to define the term. What makes the term difficult to define is the fact that a good definition of leadership needs to reflect the mission and goals of the organization and many an organization exist with different missions and goals. Leadership goals of an army dealing with an invading enemy are different from the goals of leaders of a religious organization that teaches that if a person is hit in one cheek he/she should offer the other cheek. The vast variety of organizational missions and goals, and the subjective nature of leadership styles, is the main reason why so many definitions of leadership exist. Yukl states that leadership definitions have led to characterizations of leaders in terms of traits, behaviors, influence, interaction patterns, role relationships, and occupation of an administrative position (Yukl, 2006, p. 2). Components of Leadership Apart from parochial definitions of leadership founded on immediate organizational needs and goals, leadership theorists have attempted to define leadership based in universal components applicable to all leadership settings. Northouse (2007) proposes four components that should be central to a proper comprehensive definition of leadership: (a) leadership is a process, (b) leadership involves influence, (c) leadership occurs in a group context, and (d) leadership involves goal attainment. Based on these components, this author defines leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal (p. 3). My Definition of Leadership The biblical doctrine of Spiritual Gifts infers the idea that leaders are born and made. This notion is clearly presented by the apostle Paul with the words: Eagerly desire the greater gifts (1Cor 12:31). In the context of this declaration, Paul uses as an illustration the interconnectedness that exists among different parts of the human body (1Cor. 12). Not everyone in the body is a nose, but the entire body benefits from the oxygen it administers and the detection of odors. In the same manner, not everyone in an organization, the church in this case, is a leader, but everyone works with their peculiar gift to the benefit of the whole. In the need of leadership in the church, anyone can desire that gift and purportedly exert a successful leadership role. Pauls paramount conclusion is that, although most people are born with specific gifts, anyone can acquire additional gifts, including the gift of leadership, kubernesis (v. 28). My definition of leadership: My definition of leadership is based on the assumption that leaders are born and made. Based on that premise, here is my definition: Leadership is a special ability that individuals can develop to transform people and motivate them to achieve positive end results (outcomes). Leaders can arise among followers in the sudden absence of a recognized leader to fill an important organizational vacuum. This phenomenon of the resurgence of new leaders is often seen in churches when lay members take upon their shoulders, by choice the responsibility of organizing a small study group or even planting a new church in uncharted territory. The Meaning of Theory Etymologically speaking, the word theory comes from two Greek words, thea a view and horam to see. The Greek word theoria means contemplation, speculation, and things looked at (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=t&p=9). Although theories may not be the result of unsubstantiated guess or hunch, and may be based on scientific experimentation, the speculative and subjective nature of the concept suggests that a theory is not necessarily an absolute truth with universal veracity. Because of the observational and hypothetical nature of the concept, the word theory has been attributed a number of distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion: Table 1: Definitions of Theory "A scientific hypothesis that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory" ( HYPERLINK "http://www.google.com/url?sa=X&start=0&oi=define&q=http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn%3Fs%3Dtheory&usg=AFQjCNEIcLRXh98sAwr35JZyhRGGBjuNYA" wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn). A plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena ( HYPERLINK "http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/theory" http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/theory). The doctrine or the principles underlying an art as distinguished from the practice of that particular art ( HYPERLINK "http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands. jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcommonzSzdorlandszSzdorlandzSzdmd_t_07zPzhtm" www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands. jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcommonzSzdorlandszSzdorlandzSzdmd_t_07zPzhtm). A proposed explanation whose status is still conjectural, in contrast to well-established propositions that are regarded as reporting matters of actual fact  HYPERLINK "http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=theory" http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=theory). An extremely well-substantiated explanation of some aspects of the natural world that incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses. (E.g., Einstein's Theory of Gravitation, 1916) ( HYPERLINK "http://www.google.com/url?sa=X&start=17&oi=define&q=http://www.nmsr.org/wrkshp9.htm&usg=AFQjCNHM28HUNKhHP4hqFL7fFUKuyg-2JA" www.nmsr.org/wrkshp9.htm).  Based on the uncertain nature of the theories, and the lack of consensus about its meaning, one may justifiably conclude that theories are not proven facts (E.g., the theory of evolution). Leadership Theories The study of leadership theories should begin with a universally accepted definition of leadership and with a unified criteria of the nature of theory, which we do not have. However, there are leadership theorists who have theorized about the intricacies of leadership. This section of the paper briefly discusses the main leadership theories. Three of those theories, transformational, charismatic, and servant leader, will be discussed more deeply throughout the paper and applied to my line of work. According to the Oxford University Press, Theories of leadership attempt to explain why some individuals are more effective than others at influencing, and have focused on differences in behavior, style, and personal attributes ( HYPERLINK "http://www.oup.com/ uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/glossary/glossary.htm" http://www.oup.com/ uk/orc/bin/9780199253975/01student/glossary/glossary.htm). Some theories also underscore the importance of the situational circumstance of the leadership scenario. The following paragraphs present a brief description of the main leadership theories discussed in the leadership literature today. The Great Man theories. These theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent and based on the Aristotelian philosophy that leaders are born, not made. Gender inclusiveness was originally omitted from the theory because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality (Van Wagner, 2007). The masculinity of leadership has been challenged by some who believe Florence Nightingale, who had followers, could be considered a Great Woman of the Victorian era (Moiden, 2002; Widerquist, 2000; Murphy, 2005). Along with Nightingale, history registers countless accounts of great female leaders, some of which led entire kingdoms. Traits theories. Similar to the great man theory, trait theories assume that leaders posses inherent qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. The Great Man/trait theories dominated the theoretical leadership forum until the 1950s. These theories have been extensively criticized as they reject the idea that leadership abilities can be acquired by experience or training (Murphy, 2005). Behavioral Theories. Contrary to the great man/trait theories, behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. In the 1950s behavioral and social scientists began to analyze leadership behavior (Cole, 1999). Studies from universities in Michigan, Ohio, and Harvard, explored the relationship between two leadership variables, people and task. The studies observed differences between people-oriented leaders and organizations that exercised employee participation, and task-production oriented leaders (Murphy, 2005). Rooted in  HYPERLINK "http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm" behaviorism, this leadership theory banks on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to behavioralists, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation. Transactional theories. Yukl (2006), defines transactional leadership as a process involving an exchange that may generate in the follower compliance with leader requests but is not likely to generate enthusiasm and commitment to task objectives (p. 262). This type of leadership is effective because it is in the best interest of followers to do what the leader wants (Northouse, p. 185). Similar to the transactional theory, the social exchange theory involves abstract items and followers play an active role in determining and retaining the leader. Contingency theories. Contingency theories not only take into account the leader/follower relationship, but also realize that situational variables affect leadership performance. The theories focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to these theories, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation. Popular among contingency theories is the LPC contingency model by Fred Fielder that emphasizes the relationship between leader characteristics and the situation. The model describes how the situation moderates the relationship between leadership effectiveness and a trait measure called the least preferred co-worker (LPC) score. The score is determined by asking a leader to rate, on a set of bipolar adjectives, the one person with whom he/she worked least well with (Yukl, pp. 215-218). Hersey and Blanchards situational leadership model is probably the most popular of the contingency theories. It prescribes a different pattern of leadership behavior depending on the maturity of an individual follower. The following matrix illustrates the leadership style  in terms of the amount of support and direction that leaders give to their followers (Retrieved on November 16, 2007, from: http://www.12manage.com/methods_ blanchard_situational_leadership.html). The multiple linkage model. This model builds upon earlier models of leadership and group effectiveness. Gary Yukl, the man behind the model, proposes that the overall impact of specific leader behaviors on group performance is complex and is composed of four sets of variables: (a) managerial behaviors, (b) intervening variables, (c) criterion variable, and (d) situational variables (Yulk, p. 228). The developer of the theory recognizes some conceptual weaknesses of the model, such as failure to specify how different types of leader behavior interact with each other in their effects on intervening variables (Yukl, p. 235). Transformational, charismatic, and servant leadership. These leadership theories should be included among the contingency theories and will be studied in more detail for the emphasis they place on morality and follower development. CHAPTER 2 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP This chapter aims to provide an overview of the transformational theory and apply its principles to leadership for religious organizations. Spinelli (2006) indicates that transforming leadership results in mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders, and it may also convert leaders into agents. Of all theories reviewed for the LEAD638 course, this leadership style ranks among the best suited for church leadership. This theory emphasizes positive results, innovative thinking, and are tolerance to followers mistakes (Smith, Montagno, & Kuzmenko, 2004), a desirable quality among leaders working with volunteers. The chapter is divided into four sections that include the study of the pioneers behind the theory, the characteristics of transformational leaders, a section attempting to map the main tenets of the theory is added, concluding with my personal reflection on the theory as it applies to my line of work. Pioneers Behind the Theories Transformational theories, in general, find application in several disciplines and systems. Transformational theories exist that apply to various disciplines and systems such as quantum mechanics, music, and other arts. The present chapter concentrates on transformational theories related to leadership and introduces the works of the foremost pioneers of both the transformational theory and transformational leadership theory. Transformational Theory The contemporary study of transformational theories for different disciplines often crosses with the pioneering work of George Land (1973). In his book, Grow or die: The unifying principle of transformation, Land describes the structure of change in natural systems with a series of interlocking S-curves with three distinct phases of growth to face changing environments. Theories based on the S-curve, known also as the Sigmoid curve, are founded on the assumption that all systems have a beginning, a period of growth, a plateau, a period of decline, and death (Malphurs, 2000, p. 63). Lands book title reflects this assumption and provides a solution to continuous growth by periodic transformation. Phase one of Lands transformational theory is characterized by experimentation. During this stage of existence, the system attempts to adapt and connect to the environment to avoid death. Once success is attained at this level, phase two kicks in, experiencing fast growth and focusing on replicating the success formula used in the previous phase. However, according to this author, nothing fails like success. With this statement he implies that a successful system eventually consumes resources necessary for success and that in order to avoid decline and death, leadership needs to reinvent itself. A third new S-curve needs to emerge to avoid catastrophe. Lands creative three-step approach to survival is applicable to leadership and leads to distinct approaches useful to problem solving (e.g., Invention, Improvement, and Innovation). The main implication of the theory is that leaders must be aware of which phases the system is under and which set of rules are currently operative. Another transformational theory studying change in important fields is quantum mechanics. A common text book used in the study of this field has been published by Michael Tinkham (2003), Group theory and quantum mechanics. In the field of music, the foremost transformational theorist of recent times was David Lewin (July 1933-May 2003), an American composer called "the most original and far-ranging theorist of his generation." In his book, Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations (1987), he applies mathematical group theory to music to analyze tonal and atonal sounds. Transformational Leadership Theory Transformational leadership theories, also known as relational theories (Van Wagner, 2007) and inspirational leadership (Yukl, 2006, p. 262), focuses on the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders value group performance and have high ethical and moral standards. They motivate people by helping them see the importance and higher good of the common task Downton (1973) was one of the first authors to use the term transformational leadership. In his book, Rebel Leadership: Commitment and Charisma in a Revolutionary Process, he seeks to diminish the central place of charisma in leadership, a predominant theory at the time, arguing that follower commitment in revolutionary movements involves more than the leaders personality (p. 1). Transformational leaders inspire people to action not because of their god-like virtues but rather because they incarnate the collective soul, communal identity, and social philosophy of the group (p. 79). Downton differentiates transformational leadership from transactional leadership, underlining the fact that in the latter both leader and follower are viewed as bargaining agents trying to maximize their profits in a calculative manner, expecting rewards received to be proportional to investments (p. 84). Burns (1978), another theorist associated with transformational leadership, declares that one of the most serious failures in the study of leadership has been the bifurcation between the literature on leadership and the literature on followership (p. 3). He sets out to demonstrate in his Pulitzer prize publication that the effectiveness of leaders must be judged not by their press clippings but by actual social change measured by intent and by the satisfaction of human needs and expectations (p. 3). According to Burns, transformational leadership takes place when leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality. He adds that this kind of leadership is ultimately moral in that it raises the level of human conduct and ethical aspiration of both leader and led, and thus has a transforming effect on both (p. 20). Bass & Avolio (1994), two authors also identified as pioneers of the theory, present four behavioral dimensions characteristic in transformational leaders that will be briefly discussed under the following subheading. Characteristics of Transformational Leaders Much has been written on the traits and qualities of transformational leaders. This section underscores the characteristics presented by the main proponents of the theory and those mentioned by other authorities on the subject. Characteristics from Burns Burns, one of the most influential proponents of transformational leadership describes the transformational leader as a person who looks for potential motives in followers, seeks, to satisfy higher needs, and engages the full person of the follower. The result of this type of leadership is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents (Burns, 1978, p. 4). This author further describes transformational leadership as a stream of evolving interrelationships in which leaders are continuously evoking motivational responses from followers and modifying their behavior as they meet responsiveness or resistance, in a ceaseless process of flow and counter flow (cited by Massod, Dani, Burns, and Backhouse, 2006). Characteristics from Bass Bass, another prominent advocate of the theory, adds that transformational leaders possess good visioning, rhetorical, and impression management skills that they use to develop strong emotional bonds with followers (Bass, 1985). According to Bass, transformational leaders transform and motivate followers by (1) making them more aware of the importance of task outcomes, (2) inducing them to transcend their own self-order needs, and (3) activating their higher order needs (cited by Yulk, p. 262). Table 2 presents four behavioral dimensions characteristic in transformational leaders that they identify as four Is. (Bass & Avolio, 1994, pp. 3-4). Table 2: Behavioral dimensions of transformational leaders Idealized influence. Transformational leaders are not arbitrary and behave in ways that convert them into role models for their followers who, in return, admire, respect, and trust them. Inspirational motivation. Transformational leaders foster team spirit and motivate followers with enthusiasm, optimism, good communication, and commitment to shared vision. Intellectual stimulation. Transformational leaders promote creativity and innovation by questioning assumptions, reframing problems, and approaching old situations in new ways. Individualized consideration. Transformational leaders pay special attention to each individuals needs for achievement and growth by acting as coach or mentor. For this purpose, they create new learning opportunities and provide a supportive climate. Characteristics from Other Authors Smith et al. (2004) affirm that transformational leaders inspire, motivate, and stimulate followers intellectually and, as a result, these initiatives lead to: role modeling, high ethical standards, concern for the needs of others, communication of expectations, shared visions, innovations, risk taking, and questioning of practices and systems. Transformational leaders also strive to elevate the needs of their followers, stimulating positive change and motivating and energizing staff to pursue mutual goals and share visions (Murphy, 2005). They are motivated by a sense of mission to recreate the organization to survive in a challenging external environment (Smith et al., 2004). With transformational leadership, the followers feel trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect toward the leader and become motivated to do more than they originally expected to do (Yukl, p. 262). Mapping the Theory Several models are available to the reader on how to map theories that include figures, graphs, and charts. Transformational leadership theory has been mapped and compared with other theories such as Laissez-Faire and transactional theories (Spinelli, 2006; McGuire & Kennerly, 2006; and Smith et al., 2004). The theory mapping model presented in this chapter is the same suggested in class, which depicts a table with schematic relationships between causal, intervening and end-result variables. The creation of pictorial illustrations of the theory has been avoided in view of the notion taught by some professors of the PhD in Leadership program, that they should not be included in formal papers. The transformational leadership qualities under each variable, briefly presented by bullets, represent a synopsis of the qualities previously documented in this paper. Table 3. Transformational Leadership Chart CAUSAL VARIABLES (The Leader:)INTERVENING VARIABLES (The follower:)END RESULT VARIABLES (The outcome:)Motivates & Inspires Elevates followers Fosters unity Tolerant to mistakes Creates learning opportunities Coaches/mentors Personalized communication Fosters needs and values of followers Motivated for action Goal ownership Individual needs are supplied Follower involvement Emotional bonds with leader Increased organizational commitment Intellectual stimulation Feels valued Staff is transformed Positive change Synergy in the group High ethical standards Concern for the individual Mutual stimulation and elevation Convert leaders into moral agents Increased job performance Schematic relationship between causal, intervening, and end-result variables characteristic of transformational leadership. Looking at the variables depicting the relationship between leader and follower, one can notice a symbiotic interaction that is consistent with biblical teachings that underline relationships as the heart of the gospel and Christian behavior (Mathew 22:34-40; Luke 10:25-37; John 13:34-35). The outcome variable, in particular, gives a picture of end results compatible with the values and high ethical standards fostered by the Christian Scriptures. Transformational Theory and Culture Leadership in most places is exerted in multicultural environments where idiosyncrasies, traditions, peculiar practices, and values are at play. This is true of what I do now as a seminary instructor, teaching ministers to lead in cosmopolitan environments with people from different walks of life, educational backgrounds, and cultures. All theories emphasized a positive concept of leadership, but there is not a one-size-fits-all theory that may be appropriate for every organizational need on the planet. Culture, a variety of situations, internal forces in the leader, the mission of the organization, and limited human or financial resources are some of the factors that make some theories more appropriate than other in certain contexts. These factors are responsible for the emergence not only of theories of leadership, but also of organizational cultures. Organizational Culture Cameron and Quinn (1999) have identified four types of organizational cultures that permeate the world of leadership: (a) adhocracyidentified by an entrepreneurial leadership style that tends to be entrepreneurial, visionary, innovative, creative, risk oriented, and focused on the future; (b) hierarchycharacterized by good organization, control, monitoring, coordination, and maintaining efficiency; in the (c) clan culture, the most effective leaders are parent figures, team builders, facilitators, nurturers, mentors, and supportersare warm and supportive; finally, in the (d) market culture the leaders are tough, demanding, and focus on directing, producing results, negotiating, and motivating others (cited by Masood, S.; Dani, S.; Burns, N.; & Backhouse, C., 2006). Organizational Culture and Transformational Leadership According to Masood et al. (2006), transformational leaders prefer to work in an adhocratic or clan-type of culture and prefer to create working environments with a weak situational strength for their followers. I think these two types of culture are in tune with church leadership that projects to the future optimistically planning and organizing with team building in mind, and motivating volunteers in synergistic action. This affinity with Christian teaching and mission is the main reason why I decided to write about this theory. Personal Reflection There are a variety of approaches to leadership and theories disseminated in the leadership literature ready to be adopted by leaders. All theories emphasize a positive concept of leadership, but there is not a one-size-fits-all theory that may be appropriate for every organizational need on the planet. Transformational leadership theory is not clear as to how the leader can develop the leadership traits that characterize this type of leader, nor is it clear as to the process it takes to transform followers into a committed and collaborating working force. However, considering the overall Christian mission to transform the worlds thinking and behavior through the teachings and actions of individuals who have been transformed by the same power and philosophy, I think this leadership theory is one of the most appropriate for that mission. CHAPTER 3 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP This chapter provides a brief overview of charismatic leadership, beginning with the nature and meaning of the theory. Second, the chapter succinctly maps the main tenets and outcomes of charismatic leadership using as a basis key concepts from the previous section. The elucidations on the topic proceed with a section alluding to the dark side of the theory. Charismatic leadership, like most other theories of leadership, is vulnerable to extremes. Finally, the chapter concludes with personal reflections regarding the theory as applied to my line of work. Nature and Pioneers of the Theory Charisma (charismata) is a Greek term found in the Bible to describe the gifts of the Holy Spirit (e.g. 1Cor 12:4, 9). One of the most well-known definitions of charisma identifies it as a special characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader (Northouse, 2007, p. 178). The following subheadings endeavor to uncover the meaning of charismatic leadership, as it is explained by the theorys main exponents. The Meaning and Nature of Charisma In the leadership literature the charisma is based on the characteristics of a leader who inspires and directs followers by building their commitment to a shared vision and values (Hellriegel, Slocum, Woodman, 2001; Smith et al., 2004). According to the Oxford University Press Glossary, the term is used to describe those leaders who can make followers feel they are on a mission. This source adds that the leadership ability to project positively onto followers, can be associated with a psychological connotation that may ascribe to charismatic leaders abilities and qualities which they do not actually possess (Oxford University Press, 2007). Trice and Beyer (1986) argued that charismatic leadership requires more than just extraordinary personal characteristics. Indeed, current research in charismatic leadership is focused on a number of defining variables including the leaders behavior, characteristics of the follower, leader-follower relationships, contextual influences, and constraints (Smith, Montagno, & Kuzmenko, 2004). Northouse (2007, pp. 178-179), underscores types of behaviors typical of charismatic leaders: (1) They are strong role models for the beliefs and values they want their followers to adopt. For example, Gandhi advocated nonviolence and was an exemplary role model of civil disobedience. (2) They appear competent to followers. (3) They articulate ideological goals that have moral overtones. Martin Luther King Jr.s famous I have a dream speech is an example. (4) They communicate high expectations for followers, and they exhibit confidence in followers abilities to meet these expectations. (5) Charismatic leaders arouse task-relevant motives in followers that may include affiliation, power, or self-esteem. For example, John F. Kennedy appealed to the human values of the American people when he stated, Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country (Northouse, 2007, p. 179). Pioneers and Analysts of the Theory The emergence of the charismatic leadership theory in recent history is attributed to Max Weber, who used the term to describe a form of influence based not on tradition or formal authority but rather on follower perceptions of the leader (Yukl, p. 249). He borrowed the term from the Christian Scriptures where it is referred to as an impartation of the Holy Spirit as a gift from God to individuals who committed their lives to Jesus (Miller, 2007). Bryman (1992), in his study on the subject, affirms that Webers writings on the subject are highly diffuse, sometimes contradictory, and often more suggestive of what is interesting and important in charisma than a definitive exposition (p. 23). His view of the charismatic leader went from the idea of being endowed by God with special talent, as it was originally understood from the Bible, to a leader who took it upon him or herself to convince others that their talents were indeed supernatural in some way (Miller, 2007). Freud, who allegedly identified himself with Moses, considered the Old Testament legislator as one of the first towering charismatic leaders in history (cited by Burns, 1978, p. 241). In Freudian terms, charismatic leadership encourages regression such that people who are confused about their feeling toward those who took care of them may become somewhat dependent on charismatic leaders attributing to them the father figure. Charisma is therefore better seen as the outcome of a process projection rather than as a trait (Oxford University Press, 2007). House (1976) is another influential proponent of the charismatic theory of leadership. His theory of charisma in leadership has received a great deal of attention by researchers (e.g. Conger, 1999; Hunt & Conger, 1999). Since the publication of his concepts about charismatic leadership, Houses theory has been extended and revised. One major revision to the theory was made by Shamir, House, and Arthur (1993). They postulated that charismatic leadership transforms followers self-concepts and tries to link the identity of followers to the collective identity of the organization (Northouse, 2007, p. 177, 179). Neocharismatic theories. Newer versions of the theory, called neocharismatic theories, describe the motives and behaviors of charismatic leaders, and psychological processes that explain how these leaders influence followers (Yukl, p. 249). Revised versions of the theory assert that follower attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader is jointly determined by the leaders behavior, expertise, and aspects of the situation (Yukl, p. 250). Mapping the Theory The charismatic leadership qualities under each variable, presented by bullets on Table 4, represent a synopsis of the qualities mainly presented by Northouse (2007) and Yukl (2006). The causal variables include certain personality characteristics of positive charismatic leaders, as well as some types of behavior. Outcomes and characteristics of negative charismatic leaders are left out in order to follow the mapping model suggested in class. Table 4. Charismatic Leadership Chart CAUSAL VARIABLES (The Leader:)INTERVENING VARIABLES (The follower:)END RESULT VARIABLES (The outcome:)Dominant Desire to influence Confident, innovative Strong values & conviction Strong role model Shows competence Articulates goals Arouses motives Expresses confidence Emphasize intrinsic rewards Self sacrifice, take risk Pay high cost of vision Create sense of urgency Inspired by leaders vision Personal identification with leader Unquestioning acceptance & idolization of the leader Affection toward leader Obedience Identification with leader Trust leaders ideology Confidence in leader Expression of warmth toward the leader May be motivated by fear of leaders rejection Emotional involvement with the mission of the group Improved performance Collective effort Positive accomplishments Empowerment of followers Strong social identification Schematic relationship between causal, intervening, and end-result variables characteristic of charismatic leadership The Dark Side of Charisma As with all other leadership theories, charismatic leadership can be taken to unhealthy extremes. Some of the main dangers posed by a misapplication of the theorys main goals are discussed next. Charisma and Pretension As mentioned earlier in this chapter, charismatic leaders may well be ascribed abilities and qualities which they do not actually possess (Oxford University Press, 2007). Some theorists have attempted to explain charisma in terms of Freudian psychodynamic processes in followers, in an effort to explain the unusual and seemingly irrational influence of some charismatic leaders who are idolized as a superhuman hero or worshiped as a spiritual figure. One explanation to this phenomenon indicates that followers suffering from fear, guilt, or alienation may experience a feeling of euphoric empowerment and transcendence by submerging their identity in that of seemingly supernatural leader (Yukl, 2006, pp. 254-255). Charisma and Power Seeking their desire for power, charismatic leaders may precipitate a crisis where none existed previously, setting the stage for a demonstration of superior expertise and gain control (Yukl, p. 252). In tone with this attitude, Swindlers study of charismatic leaders showed the need for the charismatic leader to engage in exaggerated personal eccentricities, and worked to appear unpredictable and mysterious (cited by Bryman, 1979, p. 76). Pretending to be something one is not and seeking veneration from followers are dark sides of some charismatic leaders that depart from the morals fostered by this biblical term. Positive and Negative Charismatics Aware of the potential dark side of charisma, Yukl (2006) differentiates positive from negative charismatics in terms of the values and personality of the charismatic leaders. Positive charismatic leaders have a socialized power orientation where communal values are internalized, seeking devotion to ideology rather than devotion to the leader. Negative charismatics, on the other hand, have a personalized power orientation where the leaders intentionally seek to instill devotion to themselves rather more than to an deal (p. 259). Yukl goes on to enumerate ten negative consequences that are likely to occur in organizations led by charismatic leaders and that may increase the likelihood that the leaders career may be cut short: Being in awe of the leader reduces good suggestions by followers. Desire for leader acceptance inhibits criticism by followers. Adoration by followers creates delusions of leader infallibility. Excessive confidence and optimism blind the leader to real dangers. Denial of problems and failures reduces organizational learning. Risky, grandiose projects are more likely to fail. Taking complete credit for successes alienates some key followers. Impulsive, nontraditional behavior creates enemies as well as believers. Dependence on the leader inhibits development of competent successors. Failure to develop successors creates an eventual leadership crisis (p. 260). Personal Reflection The success of positive leadership greatly depends on the abilities of the leader to motivate and influence people for communal purposes. Charismatic leaders have the ability to galvanize followers and make them feel they are on a mission. These leaders are competent, have natural communication abilities, and a contagious conviction that projects onto followers. As positive as charisma may be, I see flaws and dangers associated with charismatic leadership. One is the connection of this leadership with qualities that are superhuman and even of divine origin. These characteristics attributed to charismatic leadership are not clearly defined and are not ratified by empirical research. The main problem is that the attributions of charismatic leadership limit leadership to just a few elite individuals. For practical purposes in organizational leadership, finding and hiring charismatic leaders can be a daunting task. Who is a leader with superhuman abilities? Another problem I see with charismatic leadership is that the theory is based on the assumption that leaders are born, not made. This is in opposition to some of the theological beliefs I hold. Both Testaments of the Christian Scriptures present leadership as a gift that a person may be able to have and practice, even if he/she did not inherit it by birth (Deut 28:13; 1Cor 12:31). The biblical view of who is a leader is broader than the view of current definitions of charismatic leaders. A final danger I see associated with charismatic leadership is the leaders temptation to abuse of the natural influencing abilities they possess. The Christian Church is not immune to the consequences of negative charisma. Scandals caused by well known charismatic preachers such as Jimmy Swaggart and Jim Jones have left indelible scars on many audiences and have damaged the influence of the church. CHAPTER 4 SERVANT LEADERSHIP Since its inception in the seventies, the servant leadership concept has become one of the most talked about yet least critically examined leadership philosophies (Barbuto, Wheeler, 2007). This chapter aims to provide an overview of the servant leadership concept and apply its principles to leadership for religious organizations. The monograph begins summing up information regarding the origins and pioneers of the theory in recent years. Next, it follows up with a description of the notions associated with the theory. Then, an attempt is made to map the theory in a comparative chart to see how it matches with other leadership theory concepts. Finally, the chapter concludes with a critique of the theory and with personal remarks. Pioneers Behind the Theory The concept of servant leadership as an approach to leadership development in recent decades has been accredited to Robert Greenleaf (2007); however, the idea of servant leadership may not have been coined by him. The servant leadership concept can be traced to Jesus, who criticized the autocratic style of political rules of the time and suggested servant leadership with the following words: You know that those who are regarded as rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wants to be first must be slave of all. For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:42-45 NIV). Greenleaf conceived the servant leadership idea not from the Bible; but from reading Hemann Hesses Journey to the East. His writings clearly indicate he wanted his readers to know which is the source of the idea of The servant leader (Greenleaf, p. 8). This fictional treatise underlines the important leadership roles exerted by a servant named Leo, who accompanies a party of travelers in a mythical journey. The servant leader concept is popular in theological seminaries, but instructors must have in mind that Greenleaf did not gain the idea from the Bible. Greenleafs ideas laid dormant for over a decade while working for AT&T, until he began to write essays on the topic and finally crystallized them in his acclaimed book, Servant leadership, fifteen years after he read about Leo (Wren 1995, p. 19). More recent proponents of servant leadership include Steven Covey, Max de Pree, Ken Blanchard, and most notably, Larry Spears (1995), CEO of the Greenleaf Center. After carefully considering Greenleafs original writing, Spears has identified a set of ten attributes that he views as being critical to the development of servant-leaders. The attributes are discussed under the following heading. Meaning and Attributes of Servant Leadership Greenleafs thesis is that a servant-leader is a servant first, then a leader. He contrasts this principle with the idea of the leader-first, the opposite extreme, where the leader puts self to the fore. Leo was a servant first and that gave him the right to be a leader. For Greenleaf, service to followers is the primary responsibility of leaders and the essence of ethical leadership. He proposed that providing meaningful work for employees is as important as providing quality product or service for the customer (Yukl, 2006, p. 420). The definition of service, according to Greenleaf, includes nurturing, defending, and empowering followers instead of using power to dominate them. A servant leader must attend to the needs of followers and help them become healthier, wiser and more willing to accept their responsibilities (Yukl, p. 420). The success of the servant leader is measured in the growth of his/her followers. In order for servant leaders to properly serve followers, they need to listen to their cries and learn about their needs and aspirations. Greenleafs writing on servant leadership touched on various aspects of leadership such as manipulation, hope, responsibility, and strength. Eventually, his ideas coalesced into a theory consisting of ten attributes or characteristics of servant leaders. Barbuto and Wheeler (2007) provide a concise summary of these attributes: (1) Listeningthey are genuinely interested in the views and input of others. (2) Empathythey walk in others shoes, and strive to understand people. (3) Healingthey have a remarkable appreciation for the health of others and facilitate their healing process. (4) Awarenessthey have a keen sense of what is happening around them. (5) Persuasionthey seek to convince others to do things rather than relying on formal authority. (6) Conceptualizationthey nurture the ability to conceptualize the world and to dream great dreams. (7) Foresightthey learn from the past, the realities of the present, and have an uncanny ability to anticipate future events. (8) Stewardshipas stewards of an organization, servant-leaders are responsible for preparing it for its destiny, usually for the betterment of society. (9) Commitment to the growth of the peoplethey work hard to help people grow spiritually, professionally, and personally, and believe that people have something to offer beyond their tangible contribution. Finally, (10) building communityservant-leaders have a strong sense of community spirit and work hard to foster it in an organization. They believe that in order to serve properly, an organization needs to function as a community. The type of leadership service proposed by Greenleaf impels leaders to stand for what is good and right, even when it is not in the financial interest of the organization (Yukl, p. 420). Servant Leadership and Christianity Is servant leadership merely a clever gimmick or technique created by wise guys to make an easy buck? Should Christian leaders practice servant leadership if the modern founder of the theory gained the idea from a fictional story? Does the servant leadership literature offer a philosophic base for the theory? Few studies have ventured in pursuit of a philosophical base for the theory, to anchor it in a particular worldview. Attempts have been made to link it to Christianity based on Jesus oracles, implying that servant leadership is a moral form of leadership. Patterson identified seven virtues associated with servant leadership: agapo love, humility, altruism, vision, trust, empowerment, and service. Wallace (2007) compares these virtues with similar virtues from Aristotelian philosophy and Christian belief. Table 5 illustrates his comparative analysis. Table 5: Wallaces comparison of servant leadership virtues AristotelianChristianPatterson 2003CourageChastityAgapo loveTemperanceAbstinenceVisionGenerosityLiberalityAltruismPrideHumilityHumilitySelf-controlPatienceTrustTruthfulnessKindnessEmpowermentJusticeDiligenceServiceWittinessFriendlinessPractical knowledgeScientific knowledge Wallaces list of Christian virtues does not fully represent the scope of biblical teachings on the subject. A careful scrutiny of the Christian Scriptures reveals his omission of known Christian virtues attributed, such as friendliness, justice, agape love, trust, and service. These virtues were attributed in Table 5 to Patterson and Aristotle and not to the Christian worldview. The Bible presents ample support for the virtues accredited to servant leadership in current literature. However, the idea of servant as a virtue is a Christian quality that all followers of Jesus should emulate, not only leaders. Also, this term is often misinterpreted and misused in Christian circles, giving it an anti-leadership meaning. What is the meaning of servant and of service? A closer look at the meaning of these words in the Bible is necessary to arrive at a proper Christian version of servant leadership. The Meaning of Servant Leadership Several words are used in the Bible to denote the idea of servant. One is doulos translated as servant or slave. Israelite law distinguishes between hired servants and slaves (Lev 25:6) based upon the voluntary/involuntary character of the relationship; but their functions are overlapping (Bromiley, 1988). Both paid servants and slaves owed subordination to their masters or lords. The servant concept is also used in the Old Testament to identify the king-subject relationship. All subjects in a kingdom refer to the king as lord and themselves as servants (2 Sam 13:24; 1 Kings 1:17), but everyone owes God allegiance as His servants, because he is the Lord of lords (Mal 1:6; Deut 10:17; Ps 136:3). Even the kings of Israel needed to be subordinated to Gods decrees and principles. In the New Testament, Christians regarded themselves as slaves of Christ (1Cor 7:22), or slaves of God (1Pet 2:16). Servants in the biblical context must unquestioningly serve the masters every command and do precisely as the master requests. This is not precisely the meaning of leadership portrayed in literature today and, arguably, in the Bible. Diconos is another biblical word often translated as servant. Jesus considered himself a deacon who came not to be served but to serve (diaconsai) and to give his life in ransom for many (Matt 20:28). He was among his followers as one who serves diaconn (Luke 22:27). Christian leadership theorists used the above text or parallel texts to endorse servant leadership. Unfortunately, the term is interpreted in a way that presents leaders as being slavish or subservient to followers, which is adversative to the leadership concept. Jesus as servant had a sacrificial/redemptive task not required by his followers. In leadership terms, dying for the sins of the world was part of his job description. As a leader, Jesus served the world in ways no other being could serve. His leadership style was a combination of several leadership functions that began with him being a servant, then a manager, and finally as CEO, in todays leadership terminology. He began his ministry recruiting and training followers. Then he delegated all managerial tasks, sent them to work, and served as leader. Finally, he left his followers working alone as he departed to heaven. The word diconos was also used by the Twelve to serve the tables in (Acts 6:2). Exhausted by the rigors of leadership and serving needy widows, the apostles were neglecting important aspects of their mission. They gathered all followers and indicated that it was not correct to to neglect the word of God in order to serve (diaconen) tables (Acts 6:2 NAS). In a similar incident, Moses in the Old Testament was summoned by his father-in-law for doing tasks that detracted him from important leadership responsibilities (Exo 18). The biblical teaching to be a servant is for every follower and not confined to leaders alone. Paul affirms this universal Christian duty with the words: love and serve (douleute) one another (Gal 5:13). Christians serve one another with the gifts and talents they have. This doctrine of spiritual gifts, mentioned earlier, provides insights about the relationship between servanthood and leadership. Paul makes a sharp contrast between the gift of antilemsis, helping others and kubernesis, forms of leadership (1Cor 12:28 NRS). The spiritual gifts doctrine does not preclude Christians from having a combination of gifts. A leader can also serve. Wallace, responding to the question of why leaders should practice servant leadership declares: because it affirms human dignity, increases the bond of community by fostering compassion and attention to peoples needs (Wallace, 2007). Mapping the Servant Leadership Concept The development of servant leadership as a theory has been a slow process as researchers struggle to articulate an adequate theoretical infrastructure. Wallace (2007), lists different works of theorists who have compared servant leadership with other leadership theories and have explored it in the context of its attributes, benefits, values, models, assumptions in relation to gender. Steve Covey (1998, pp. 101, 147) correlates leadership and management based on current literature and establishes concrete differences. Table 6 portrays servant leadership in the middle surrounded by related variables to the right and with common leadership concepts that often antagonize with the servant idea. Table 7: Servant leadership contrasted with leadership and management LeadershipManagementServant LeadershipServant FollowerServant OutcomeCopes with changeCopes with peopleListeningHealthierUnity Right brain actionLeft brain actionEmpathyWiserProductionSets directionPlans and budgetsCommunityEmpoweredCommunityGives directionOrganizes and staffsHealingObedientHealthy workersMotivatesControlsAwarenessFaithfulEnvisions PerformsPersuasionWilling to workValue flexibilityValue stabilityConceptualizationProvides meaningProvides resultsForesightStewardshipCommitment Personal Reflection One should remember that leadership is a form of service. True leaders are servants of the organization they represent. Phil Jackson serves the Los Angeles Lakers from the sidelines. Although he does not run on the court chasing balls to score baskets, he still serves the team in the goal to become NBA champions. Similarly with ministers leading churches, they can serve the church from the sidelines, directing traffic, organizing, delegating, projecting to the future according to contextual challenges and motivating from the pulpit. This, of course, does not preclude leaders from serving others in roles not related to leadership, as Phil Jackson may help an injured player in personal ways. Finally, on the question, Should ministers practice servant leadership? I conclude with a cautious yes. Ministers should imitate Jesus, who has served his church in different leadership levels. First as a true servant obedient to death; then as a manager and trainer; and now as a leader who affirms human dignity, increasing the bond of community by fostering compassion and attention to peoples needs. CHAPTER 5 MY APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP AND CONCLUSION As stated in the introduction of this paper, the ultimate goal is to synthesize an approach to leadership based on the analysis of three popular leadership theories: transformational, charismatic, and servant leadership. The latter may not be viewed by some as a theory, but as a gimmick or technique proliferated by people who want to make money; however, the theory can find support among serious leadership authors and the Christian Scriptures, which are most authoritative in my line of work. In this final chapter I begin synthesizing concepts related to the three main theories studied for this class, concluding with a revision of the main approach to leadership, based on my leadership definition. Transformational, Charisma, and Servant Leadership These theories were analyzed more in depth in this paper, for the high emphasis they place on morality and for the affinity with leadership in church contexts. Transformational leadership, in particular, has the altruistic goal to transform followers, not only into morally sound agents but into leaders. This kind of leadership raises the moral level of human conduct and ethical aspirations of both leader and led, thus having a transforming effect on both (Burns, 1978, p. 20). This theoretical framework reflects upon Jesus ministry and his leadership practice. He transformed a small company of fishermen into a powerful band of leaders that disseminated the Christian faith throughout the world. I believe the transformational goals and outcome of Jesus ministry should be emulated by church leaders today, and should be taught by seminary leadership professors. The principles fostered by this theory match perfectly the goals and mission of the ministerial profession and provides insights for what I do as a teacher of church leadership. Despite the dark side of charismatic leadership, the term finds roots in the Bible and is associated with the work of the Holy Spirit. The charismatic leaders capacity to articulate the mission of the institution and to motivate people for action is a desirable attribute of the theory. Charismatic leaders have the capacity to galvanize collective effort and achieve positive outcomes. While charismatic leadership is often described in ways that make it similar to, if not synonymous with, transformational leadership (Northouse, 2007, p. 177), I think there are substantial differences that make transformational leadership more desirable for religious institutions. Although charismatic leadership extends its etymological roots to the biblical concept of charisma, this leadership theory does not require the moral component of transforming leadership (Masood, S.; Dani, S.; Burns, N.; & Backhouse, C., 2006). Another difference between these two leadership theories is related to the leader-follower relationship. Contrary to transformational leadership that produces new leaders, charismatic leaders emerge among dependent followers (Yukl, pp. 251, 255). Successful leadership in church organizations relies on the ability to emancipate followers, as Jesus did, so they can do the work not depending on the minister. The servant leadership concept can find roots in the Bible, however, Greenleaf, the theorist who resurrected the idea in the seventies, conceived the concept from reading fictional literature. Servant leadership is based on the idealistic philosophy of nurturing, defending, and empowering followers instead of using power to dominate them. Unfortunately, the term is often interpreted in a way that presents leaders as being slavish or subservient to followers, which is adversative to the leadership concept. According to the biblical meaning of servant, this is a Christian quality that all followers of Jesus should emulate, not only leaders. Some principles of servant leadership such as affirming human dignity and increasing the bond of community by fostering compassion and attention to peoples needs, are principles all responsible citizens should emulate. Does that make everyone a leader? My response is negative because universalizing such criteria would certainly dilute the significance of being a leader and would militate against the reality of our society, where very few people function as leaders, even in Christian churches. My Definition and Approach to Leadership My leadership definition is based on the biblical premise that leaders are both born and made. It takes into the equation the church setting, where successful leadership takes place in the context of delegation and high moral standards. I teach seminary students whose goal is make their churches grow, once they complete their programs and embark on ministry. Successful ministry requires transforming followers into a morally sound team motivated to persuade people to Christ. Effective ministers form spiritual leaders who desire to serve their Lord. Ministers should create an atmosphere where new leaders can arise among group members and church departments in the absence of a recognized leader, or when circumstances crave the need for someone to take charge. Hence, my definition: Leadership is a special ability that individuals can develop to transform people and motivate them to achieve positive end results (outcomes). This definition by no means pretends to be designed to be universally applicable for all leadership settings. There is not a one-size-fits-all definition of leadership that is appropriate for every organization on the planet. My definition considers the church setting and the preparation of leaders for ministry. It should be observed that residue of the characteristics of two of the main theories studied for this paper have been included in my definition. Transform from transformational theory and motivate from charisma. This definition is important and has a pivotal role in my approach to leadership: Motivating followers to transform the world. REFERENCE LIST Barbuto, J. & Wheeler, D. (2007). Becoming a servant leader: Do you have what it takes? Neb Guide. University of Nebraska. Retrived November 1, 2007 from < HYPERLINK "http://www.ianrpubs" http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/live/g1481/build/g1481.pdf> Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press. Bass, B.M. & Avolio, B.J. (eds.). (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Bromiley, G. (Ed.). (1988). The international standard Bible encyclopedia. S.v., servant, slave. Grand Rapids: William Eerdmans Publishing Company. Burns, J. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row. Cole, G. A. (1999). Management: Theory and Practice (5th Ed.). D.P. Publications, London. Covey, S. (1989). The 7 habits of highly effective people New York: Simon and Schuster. Downton, J. V. (1973). Rebel Leadership: Commitment and Charisma in the Revolutionary Process. New York: The Free Press. Land, G. (1973). Grow or die: The unifying principle of transformation. New York: Random House. Lewin, D. (1987). Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations. New York: Quorum Books. McGuire, E. & Kennerly, S. (2006, July-August). Nurse managers as transformational and transactional leaders. Nursing Economic$. 24(4), 179-185. Malphurs, A. (2000). Strategic planning: A new model for church and ministry leaders. Grand Rapids: Baker Books. Massod, S., Dani, S., Burns, N., and Backhouse, C. (2006). Transformational leadership and organizational culture: the situational strength perspective. Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 220 (Part B), 941-949. Moiden, N. (2002). Evolution of leadership in nursing. Nursing Management, 9 (7), 20-25. Murphy, L. (2005). Transformational leadership: a cascading chain reaction. Journal of Nursing Management 13, 128-136. Smith, B.; Montagno, R., & Kuzmenko, T. (2004). Transformational and servant leadership: Content and contextual comparisons. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies. 10(4), 80-91. Spears, L. (1995). Servant leadership and the Greenleaf legacy. In L. Spears (Ed.), Reflections on leadership: How Robert K. Greenleafs theory of servant leadership influenced todays to management thinkers. (pp. 1-17). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Spinelli, R. (2006, Spring). The applicability of Basss Model of transformational, transactional, and Laissez-faire leadership in the hospital administrative environment. Research and Perspective on Healthcare, 84(2), 11-18. Tinkham, M. (2003). Group theory of quantum mechanics. New York: Courier Dover Publications. Van Wagner. (2007). Retrieved September 26, 2007 from: (http://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/p/leadtheories.htm. Wallace, R. (2007). Servant Leadership: A world perspective. International Journal of Leadership Studies, Vol. 2 Iss. 2, pp. 114-132. Widerquist, J. (2000). Character, a Nightingale criterion for nursing leadership. Nursing Management, 7 (5), 5-7). Wren, T. (Ed.). (1995). The Leaders Companion: Insights on Leadership Through the Ages (New York: The Free Press. Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership in organizations. 6th edition. New Jersey: Person/Prentice Hall.     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